giovedì 1 ottobre 2020

VIETNAM, 23 NOVEMBRE 1946: L’Incidente di Haiphong


VIETNAM, 23 NOVEMBRE 1946: L’Incidente di Haiphong 

L' incidente di Haiphong o il massacro di Haiphong si verificò il 23 novembre 1946, quando l' incrociatore francese Suffren bombardò la città costiera vietnamita di Haiphong, uccidendo circa 6.000 vietnamiti.  

L'incidente, noto anche come Shelling of Haiphong, è considerato il primo scontro armato di una serie di eventi che porteranno alla battaglia di Hanoi il 19 dicembre 1946, e con essa lo scoppio ufficiale del Primo Guerra d'Indocina.
Dopo la seconda guerra mondiale, il futuro del territorio vietnamita era in discussione. Dopo essere stato sotto anni di dominio coloniale francese seguito dal dominio giapponese durante la guerra, il Vietnam iniziò a cercare l'indipendenza. Nello specifico, il 9 marzo 1945 i giapponesi rinunciarono alle rivendicazioni francesi sul territorio vietnamita, dichiarando ufficialmente il Vietnam indipendente dalla Francia e sotto il controllo dell'imperatore Bảo Đại.  Ciò fu contrastato da una ribellione il 2 settembre 1945, quando Ho Chi Minh e il suo esercito di guerriglieri dichiararono la nascita ufficiale della Repubblica Democratica del Vietnam.  Ho Chi Minh divenne il leader del Partito Comunista Vietnamita, e richiese la totale autonomia dall'Europa. 
I francesi ignorarono queste rivendicazioni di autonomia e si trasferirono rapidamente per reinsediare il Vietnam come membro dell'Unione francese. Tuttavia, la colonizzazione completa non era più un'opzione a causa delle dinamiche di potere a ovest e il 6 marzo 1946, dopo aver ricevuto pressioni dagli alleati occidentali, Jean Sainteny, il commissario francese per l'Indocina settentrionale si incontrò con Ho Chi Minh ad Hanoi e firmò la Ho –Accordo di prudenza. L'accordo diede ufficialmente l'indipendenza del Vietnam come "uno stato libero con un proprio governo, parlamento, esercito e finanze, facente parte della Federazione indocinese e dell'Unione francese". Inoltre, il trattato consentiva ai francesi di avere una presenza militare in Vietnam per i successivi cinque anni. 
Al momento della firma, era opinione diffusa che Ho Chi Minh avesse fatto troppe concessioni ai francesi. Consentendo la continua presenza dell'esercito francese, Ho consentiva la continuazione del controllo coloniale francese come in passato. Il quotidiano comunista Les Temps modernes ha criticato la firma dell'accordo, definendolo "la deplorevole resa di tutti i nostri piani ideologici e politici comunisti". Da parte francese, Thierry d'Argenlieu ha illustrato l'ottimismo francese riguardo al trattato in un comunicato scrisse al governo parigino: "A livello francese, alle forze armate viene assicurata un'accoglienza amichevole e stiamo anticipando ogni rimprovero per l'apertura delle ostilità... Stiamo salvaguardando pienamente gli interessi economici e culturali francesi ora e per il futuro.” Le preoccupazioni vietnamite riguardo all'accordo si concretizzarono presto quando la Francia iniziò a esercitare la stessa autorità coloniale che aveva formalmente accantonato nel trattato. La Francia creò un blocco navale virtuale del porto di Haiphong continuando ad avere una forte presenza navale nel Golfo del Tonchino. Ciò portò i vietnamiti a intraprendere colloqui di pace per frenare l'influenza francese nella regione. Questi colloqui di pace avvennero sotto forma di accordi di Fontainebleau, presso il Palazzo di Fontainebleau e furono guidati da Phạm Văn Đồng per i vietnamiti e Max André dalla parte dei francesi, a partire dal 6 luglio 1946. La conferenza a palazzo si tenne per discutere le disposizioni dell’Accordo di salvaguardia. Alla conferenza, i francesi si rifiutarono di rivedere in alcun modo il trattato originale. La leadership vietnamita, guidata da Ho Chi Minh, decise quindi di firmare un modus vivendi, rimandando i colloqui a una data successiva. Questi colloqui non si ebbero mai a causa dello scoppio della violenza nel mese di novembre.

L’incidente - Il Dumont d'Urville nelle Indie orientali olandesi, 1930-1936

La mattina del 20 novembre 1946, una nave pattuglia francese sequestrò una unità cinese che tentava di portare merce di contrabbando ad Haiphong. Sebbene apparentemente di routine, il sequestro della nave fu l'inizio di una catena di sfortunati eventi. I soldati vietnamiti si opposero al sequestro sparando sulla nave francese dalla riva. Scontri armati scoppiarono subito a terra tra nazionalisti francesi e vietnamiti. I francesi lavorarono immediatamente per evitare il conflitto accettando di rispettare la sovranità vietnamita ad Haiphong il 22 novembre 1946.
Questo, tuttavia, fu solo l'inizio dell'incidente. Quando la notizia della scaramuccia giunse all'ammiraglio d'Argenlieu a Parigi, questi inviò un cablogramma a Jean Étienne Valluy, comandante delle forze francesi in Indocina, ordinandogli di usare la forza contro i vietnamiti ad Haiphong. Valluy, a sua volta, ordinò al colonnello Debès, comandante delle truppe francesi di Haiphong, affermando: "Appare chiaro che siamo di fronte ad aggressioni premeditate attentamente inscenate dall'esercito regolare vietnamita... dura lezione a coloro che ti hanno aggredito a tradimento. Usa tutti i mezzi a tua disposizione per riconquistare Haiphong. "Debès lanciò quindi un ultimatum ai vietnamiti di Haiphong chiedendo un ritiro dalla sezione francese e dalle sezioni cinesi della città, porto compreso. Nell'ordine, Debès invocò l'accordo franco-cinese del 28 febbraio 1946 come giustificazione per chiedere l'evacuazione vietnamita di parti della città. Debès sostenne che il trattato dava alla Francia diritti di protezione sui cinesi in Vietnam e quindi dava loro la giurisdizione per impegnarsi in combattimento.
Poiché i vietnamiti non riuscirono a evacuare in tempo, i francesi iniziarono un bombardamento delle sezioni vietnamite della città, usando tre avisos francesi.
L' attivista comunista Henri Martin ha scritto che l'incrociatore Suffren e gli aerei da combattimento parteciparono all'operazione. Il 28 novembre 1946, il colonnello Debès prese il controllo completo della città. 
I rapporti sul numero totale di vittime del bombardamento variano ampiamente da oltre ventimila a meno di cento. Oggi è ampiamente riconosciuto che il numero di vittime è molto vicino a seimila, come riportato dal sociologo francese Paul Mus. 

Tentata riconciliazione

Subito dopo il bombardamento, il governo francese ricercò la pace. Tutte le violenze erano terminate nel pomeriggio del 22 novembre e le tensioni sembravano essersi attenuate. Meno di due settimane dopo il bombardamento, dopo aver ricevuto pressioni da Parigi per "dare una lezione ai vietnamiti", il generale Morlière ordinò il completo ritiro vietnamita dalla città, chiedendo che tutti gli elementi militari Viet Minh che fossero evacuati dalla città di Haiphong. All'inizio di dicembre 1946, Haiphong era sotto la completa occupazione militare francese.
Le azioni dei francesi riguardo all'occupazione di Haiphong confermarono ai Viet Minh che i francesi intendevano mantenere una presenza coloniale in Vietnam. La minaccia dei francesi di stabilire uno stato meridionale separato in Vietnam assediando la città di Hanoi divenne una priorità assoluta per il Viet Minh da contrastare con ogni mezzo. 
Il 2 dicembre, come ultimo sforzo per mantenere buoni rapporti tra le due nazioni, il commissario francese Sainteny (dell'accordo Ho-Sainteny) si recò ad Hanoi per raggiungere un accordo per un cessate il fuoco. Ciò si rivelò infruttuoso poiché l'insistenza francese sul mantenimento del controllo militare completo di Haiphong bloccò tutti i negoziati. L'elezione del 16 dicembre del socialista Léon Blum come premier diede una speranza ad Ho Chi Minh ed ai vietnamiti, poiché i socialisti francesi avevano una politica molto più tollerante nei confronti dell'indipendenza vietnamita.  Ciò tuttavia si rivelò una falsa speranza poiché quando Blum entrò in carica, la violenza tra vietnamiti e francesi era già diffusa.

L'inizio della guerra

Mentre le relazioni tra Francia e Vietnam continuavano a peggiorare, Ho Chi Minh lanciò un appello per la pace tra le due nazioni il 12 dicembre, affermando: "Né la Francia né il Vietnam possono permettersi il lusso di una guerra sanguinosa".  Ho, tuttavia, non fu completamente sostenuto nella sua richiesta di pace. Võ Nguyên Giáp, capo dell'esercito vietnamita, era convinto che il confronto aperto fosse oramai inevitabile. Giap era certo che l’occupazione di Haiphong segnalasse l'intenzione della Francia di attaccare e conquistare Hanoi.  Ciò portò Giap a concentrarsi sull'armamento delle milizie di Hanoi in preparazione dell’attacco. I media vietnamiti confermarono le preoccupazioni del generale Giap. In un articolo del 10 dicembre 1946, un quotidiano di Hanoi affermava: "L'ora della tomba è arrivata. Il Comitato di Hanoi del Fronte Việt Minh chiede alla gente di essere calma, di essere unita e di essere pronta a sollevarsi quando il governo dà l'ordine di ribellarsi contro i francesi". Il popolo vietnamita, a sua volta, reagì alla richiesta di prepararsi, costruendo barricate nelle strade di Hanoi e impegnandosi in scaramucce armate con i legionari francesi.
L'ultimatum finale ai vietnamiti fu emesso il 19 dicembre, quando il generale Morlière ordinò alla milizia leader del Viet Minh, Tu Ve, di disarmare completamente. Quella notte, tutta l'elettricità fu interrotta ad Hanoi e la città fu lasciata nell'oscurità più completa. I vietnamiti (in particolare la milizia Tu Ve) attaccarono i francesi dall'interno di Hanoi con mitragliatrici, artiglieria e mortai. Migliaia di soldati francesi e civili vietnamiti persero la vita.  I francesi reagirono assaltando Hanoi il giorno successivo, costringendo il governo vietnamita a rifugiarsi fuori città. Lo stesso Ho Chi Minh fu costretto a fuggire da Hanoi in una zona montuosa remota. L'attacco può essere definito come un attacco preventivo contro i francesi. La rivolta di Hanoi non fece altro che intensificare gli scontri armati tra i francesi ed i Viet Minh nella prima guerra in Indocina.

ENGLISH

The Haiphong Incident or the Haiphong Massacre occurred on November 23, 1946, when the French cruiser Suffren bombarded the Vietnamese coastal city of Haiphong, killing some 6,000 Vietnamese people. The incident, also known as the Shelling of Haiphong, is thought of as the first armed clash in a series of events that would lead to the Battle of Hanoi on December 19, 1946, and with it the official outbreak of the First Indochina War.

Background

After World War II, the future of the Vietnamese territory was in question. After being under years of French colonial rule followed by Japanese rule during the war, Vietnam began to seek independence. Specifically, the Japanese renounced French claims to the Vietnamese territory on March 9, 1945, officially declaring Vietnam independent over France and under the control of Emperor Bảo Đại. This was counteracted by a rebellion on September 2, 1945, when Ho Chi Minh and his guerilla army declared the official birth of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh became the leader of the Vietnamese Communist Party, and demanded complete autonomy from Europe.
The French disregarded these claims of autonomy and quickly moved to resettle Vietnam as a member for the French Union. However, complete colonization was no longer an option due to power dynamics in the west and on March 6, 1946, after receiving pressure from the western allies, Jean Sainteny, French Commissioner for Northern Indochina met with Ho Chi Minh in Hanoi and signed the Ho–Sainteny agreement. The agreement officially gave Vietnam independence as "a free state with its own government, parliament, army and finances, forming part of the Indochinese Federation and the French Union". Additionally, the treaty allowed for the French to have a military presence in Vietnam for the following five years.
At the time of the signing, it was widely thought that Ho Chi Minh had given many concessions to the French. By allowing the continued presence of the French army, Ho allowed for a continuation of the French colonial control of the past. The Communist newspaper Les Temps modernes criticized the signing of the deal, calling the agreement "the lamentable surrender of all our Communists ideological and political plans". On the French side, Thierry d'Argenlieu illustrated French optimism regarding the treaty in a communiqué he wrote to the Parisian government: "On the French level, the armed forces are assured of a friendly reception and we are pre-empting any reproach for opening hostilities ... We are fully safeguarding French economic and cultural interests now and for the future." Vietnamese worries in regards to the agreement soon came to fruition as France began to exert the same colonial authority it had formally denounced in the treaty. France created a virtual naval blockade of Haiphong by continuing to have a strong naval presence in the Gulf of Tonkin. That led the Vietnamese to reach out for peace talks to curb French influence in the region. These peace talks came in the form of the Fontainebleau Agreements, which occurred at the Palace of Fontainebleau and were led by Phạm Văn Đồng for the Vietnamese and Max André on the side of the French, beginning on July 6, 1946. The conference at the palace was held to discuss the provisions of the Ho-Sainteny Agreement. At the conference, the French refused to revise the original treaty in any way. The Vietnamese leadership, led by Ho Chi Minh, settled to sign a modus vivendi, postponing talks to a later date. These talks never occurred due to the outbreak of violence in November.

The Incident

On the morning of November 20, 1946, a French patrol ship seized a Chinese junk attempting to bring contraband into Haiphong. While seemingly routine, the seizure of the ship was the beginning of a chain of unfortunate events. Vietnamese soldiers reacted to the seizure by firing on the French ship from the shore. Armed clashes immediately broke out on land between French and Vietnamese nationalists. The French immediately worked to dissipate the conflict and stopped the outbreak by agreeing to respect Vietnamese sovereignty in Haiphong on November 22, 1946.
This, however, was only the beginning of the incident. Once the news of the skirmish came to Admiral d'Argenlieu in Paris, he sent a cable to Jean Étienne Valluy, commander of French forces in Indochina, ordering him to use force against the Vietnamese in Haiphong. Valluy, in turn, sent an order to Colonel Debès, commander of the French troops at Haiphong, stating, "It appears clear that we are up against premeditated aggressions carefully staged by the Vietnamese regular army ... The moment has come to give a severe lesson to those who have treacherously attacked you. Use all the means at your disposal to make yourself complete master of Haiphong." Debès then issued an ultimatum to the Vietnamese in Haiphong demanding a withdrawal from the French section and Chinese sections of the city, including the port. In the order, Debès invoked the Franco-Chinese agreement of February 28, 1946 as justification for demanding the Vietnamese evacuation of parts of the city. Debès argued that the treaty gave France protective rights over the Chinese in Vietnam and thus gave them jurisdiction to engage in combat.
After the Vietnamese failed to evacuate in time, the French began a bombardment of the Vietnamese sections of the city, using three French avisos: Chevreuil (Chamois-class minesweeping sloop)[23], Savorgnan de Brazza and Dumont d'Urville.
The communist activist Henri Martin wrote that the cruiser Suffren and fighter planes participated in the operation, but this is a lie By November 28, 1946, Colonel Debès had taken complete control over the town.
While reports about the total number of casualties from the bombardment range widely from upwards of twenty thousand to less than one hundred. Today it is widely agreed that the number of casualties is very close to six thousand as reported by the French sociologist Paul Mus.

Attempted reconciliation

Immediately after the shelling, the French government sought peace. All violence was ended by the afternoon of November 22 and tensions seemed to have been alleviated. This was not the case. Less than two weeks after the shelling, after receiving pressure from Paris to "teach the Vietnamese a lesson" General Morlière ordered a complete Vietnamese withdrawal from the city, demanding all Viet Minh military elements to be evacuated from Haiphong. By early December, 1946, Haiphong was under complete French military occupation.
The aggressive actions of the French regarding the occupation of Haiphong made it clear in the eyes of the Viet Minh that the French intended on maintaining a colonial presence in Vietnam. The threat of the French establishing a separate southern state in Vietnam by besieging the city of Hanoi became a top priority for the Viet Minh to counteract.
On December 2, as a final effort to maintain good relations between the two nations, French Commissioner Sainteny (of the Ho–Sainteny agreement) visited Hanoi to reach an agreement for a ceasefire. This proved unsuccessful as the French insistence on maintaining complete military control of Haiphong stalled all negotiations. The December 16 election of the socialist Léon Blum as the Premier of France offered hope to Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese, as the French socialists had a much more tolerant policy towards Vietnamese independence. That however, proved to be false hope as by the time Blum came into office, violence between the Vietnamese and French was already widespread.

The onset of war

As relations between France and Vietnam continued to worsen, Ho Chi Minh issued a plea for peace between the two nations on December 12, stating, "Neither France nor Viet Nam can afford the luxury of a bloody war". Ho, however, was not completely supported in his call for peace. Võ Nguyên Giáp, leader of the Vietnamese army was convinced that open confrontation was inevitable. Giap was certain that the takeover of Haiphong signaled France's intent to attack and take over Hanoi. This led to Giap focusing on arming the Hanoi militias in preparation for an attack. The Vietnamese media reflected the concerns of General Giap. In an article on December 10, 1946, a Hanoi newspaper stated, "The grave hour has arrived. The Hanoi Committee of the Việt Minh Front calls on the people to be calm, to be united, and to be ready to rise when the government gives the order to rebel against the French." The Vietnamese people, in turn, reacted to the plea to prepare, building barricades in the streets of Hanoi and engaging in armed skirmishes with French legionnaires.
The final ultimatum to the Vietnamese was issued on December 19, when General Morlière ordered the leading Viet Minh militia, Tu Ve, to completely disarm. That night, all electricity was turned off in Hanoi and the city was left in complete darkness. The Vietnamese (specifically the Tu Ve militia) attacked the French from within Hanoi with machine guns, artillery, and mortars. Thousands of French soldiers and Vietnamese civilians lost their lives. The French reacted by storming Hanoi the following day, forcing the Vietnamese government to take refuge outside of the city. Ho Chi Minh himself was forced to flee Hanoi for a more remote mountainous area. The attack can be characterized as a preemptive strike against the French after the overtaking of Haiphong endangered Vietnamese claims to Hanoi and all of Vietnam. The uprising in Hanoi escalated the aggression between the French and Viet Minh into the First Indochina War.

(Web, Wikiwand, Wikipedia, You Tube)


































 

La Russia ha sviluppato la versione navale della torretta da 57 mm telecomandata AU-220M


La Russia ha sviluppato la versione navale della torretta da 57 mm telecomandata AU-220M

L'Istituto scientifico e di ricerca Burevestnik della Russia, una filiale della Rostec Uralvagonzavod, ha sviluppato una variante navale della torretta AU-220M 57 mm sulla base del programma Derivatsiya-PVO. Gli specialisti della Marina russa (VMF) valutano positivamente la sua potenziale integrazione su piccole unità di superficie, comprese piccole navi e imbarcazioni.


Il cannone antiaereo semovente Derivatsiya-PVO da 57 mm di base (SPAAG) viene convertito in un asset AA robotizzato con alto livello di automazione e velocità di tiro, controllo remotizzato e una stazione elettro-ottica per difendere le unità navali da veicoli da combattimento, da ricognizione aerea terrestri e senza pilota, unità di controllo del fuoco e piattaforme di tiro a distanza. Si procederà altresì allo sviluppo di elettronica autoctona di nuova generazione.
La torretta AU-220M ROWS pesa 3.650 kg ed è armata con un cannone automatico da 57 mm e una mitragliatrice coassiale 6P7K da 7,62 mm. Il carico di munizioni del cannone principale comprende 80 proiettili perforanti a frammentazione ad alto esplosivo (HE-Frag) e artiglieria guidata. L'arma ha una velocità di fuoco di 80 colpi al minuto e ingaggia bersagli in superficie fino a una distanza di 14,5 km con un carico di munizioni di 500 cartucce da 7,62 mm. La corazzatura frontale del modulo fornisce protezione STANAG 4569 di livello 5 contro colpi da 30 mm; la stazione dispone anche di protezione STANAG 4569 di livello 3 contro proiettili da 7,62 mm. 
La suite di sensori dell'AU-220M comprende una telecamera TV, una termo-camera e uno stabilizzatore del campo visivo a doppio asse indipendente. Il modulo è inoltre dotato di telemetri laser.

ENGLISH

Russia has developed the naval version of the 57mm remote-controlled AU-220M turret

The Burevestnik Scientific and Research Institute of Russia, a subsidiary of Rostec Uralvagonzavod, has developed a naval variant of the AU-220M 57 mm turret based on the Derivatsiya-PVO programme. The specialists of the Russian Navy (VMF) positively evaluate its potential integration on small surface units, including small ships and boats.
The self-propelled Derivatsiya-PVO 57 mm base anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) is converted into a robotic AA asset with high level of automation and firing speed, remote control and an electro-optical station to defend naval units from combat vehicles, land-based and unmanned aerial reconnaissance, fire control units and remote firing platforms. The development of new generation native electronics will also be undertaken.
The AU-220M ROWS turret weighs 3,650 kg and is armed with a 57mm automatic cannon and a 7.62mm 6P7K coaxial machine gun. The main cannon's ammunition load includes 80 high explosive fragmentation armor-piercing (HE-Frag) projectiles and guided artillery. The weapon has a fire rate of 80 rounds per minute and engages surface targets up to a range of 14.5km with an ammunition load of 500 7.62mm cartridges. The front armor of the module provides STANAG 4569 level 5 protection against 30 mm rounds; the station also features STANAG 4569 level 3 protection against 7.62 mm rounds. 
The AU-220M sensor suite includes a TV camera, thermal imaging camera and independent dual-axis field of view stabiliser. The module is also equipped with laser rangefinders.

(Web, Google, NavyRecognition, Wikipedia, You Tube)















 

Il caccia taiwanese AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-Kuo (Chinese: 經國號戰機; pinyin: Jīngguó Hào Zhànjī)


Il AIDC Ching Kuo (經國號戰機) è un caccia da superiorità aerea con capacità multiruolo bimotore biposto prodotto in collaborazione tra Taiwan e gli USA. Il progetto sviluppato fin dagli anni ottanta si è concretizzato in un prototipo nel 1989 e nell'ingresso in linea nella forza aerea di Taiwan nel 1994. Il Ching Kuo è tuttora in servizio.


Sviluppo

Sviluppato per sostituire gli F-5 e gli F-104, il Ching Kuo assomiglia ad un incrocio tra un F-16 e un F-18.
Inizialmente, la forza aerea di Taiwan era interessata all'acquisizione dell F-20 Tigershark, ma l'iniziativa venne bloccata nel 1982 a causa della decisione del governo statunitense di non esportare il nuovo caccia nello stato insulare per evitare l'incrinarsi dei rapporti con la Repubblica Popolare Cinese. In virtù di questa decisione il governo di Taiwan si rivolse alla francese Dassault e concordò con essa l'acquisto del Dassault Mirage 2000.Nonostante ciò, gli Stati Uniti autorizzarono le proprie industrie aeronautiche a collaborare con quelle taiwanesi per lo sviluppo congiunto di un nuovo velivolo da caccia.
Il primo volo si ebbe nel 1989. Dalla versione biposto da combattimento venne derivata anche una versione da addestramento.
Erano inizialmente previsti 250 esemplari, ma a causa dell'insoddisfazione generale della ROCAF, la produzione venne arrestata al 130° modello. Sono stati invece acquisiti diversi F-16 e Mirage 2000.


Tecnica

Il velivolo è stato concepito per fungere da caccia leggero da difesa aerea a corto raggio. Ciò ha portato i tecnici a concentrarsi sulla maneggevolezza e non sui parametri di autonomia e velocità.
Inizialmente l'armamento del velivolo era stato pensato per il solo combattimento aria-aria, ma successivamente, parallelamente all'aereo Taiwan ha sviluppato anche alcuni appositi sistemi d'arma come i missili antinave Hsiung Feng II del tipo sea skimming, che volano a pelo dell'acqua.
Il Ching Kuo è armato con un cannone M61 da 20 mm, missili Sidewinder, Sky Sword I e II, bombe a guida laser GBU-12, missili aria-superficie Maverick e i già citati missili antinave.
Nel 2001 Taiwan ha avviato un programma di aggiornamento dei Ching Kuo allo standard F-CK-1C/D: 70 esemplari saranno potenziati con notevoli miglioramenti in fatto di avionica e armamento, oltre a disporre di maggior carburante interno.


Versioni:
  • F-CK-1 A/B Ching-kuo (135)
  • prototipi (4)
  • F-CK-1A - monoposto (103)
  • F-CK-1B - biposto (28)
  • F-CK-1 C/D Hsiang Sheng
  • prototipi (2)
  • F-CK-1C - monoposto
  • F-CK-1D - biposto



Utilizzatori:
  • Taiwan - Zhonghua Minguo Kongjun - Dei 130 esemplari consegnati tra il 1993 ed il 2000, 127 aerei sono stati aggiornati come F-CK-1C e F-CK-1D e gli aggiornamenti interessano sia l'avionica che l'armamento. Al gennaio 2018 risultano in carico 127 esemplari. All'ottobre 2018, sono 129 gli aerei aggiornati, in quanto anche i due prototipi usati per il programma sono stati consegnati all'aeronautica.


ENGLISH

The AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-Kuo (Chinese: 經國號戰機; pinyin: Jīngguó Hào Zhànjī), commonly known as the Indigenous Defense Fighter (IDF), is a multirole combat aircraft named after Chiang Ching-kuo, the late President of the Republic of China. The aircraft made its first flight in 1989. It was delivered to the Republic of China Air Force (Taiwan) in January 1994 and entered service in 1997. All 130 production aircraft were manufactured by 1999.
Taiwan initiated the IDF program when the United States refused to sell them F-20 Tigershark and F-16 Fighting Falcon jet fighters following diplomatic pressure from China. Taiwan therefore decided to develop an advanced indigenous jet fighter. The Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation (AIDC), based in Taichung, Taiwan, designed and built the IDF jet fighter.

Development

Background

The preliminary search for a replacement for the ROCAF's F-5s and F-104s began with the XF-6 indigenous fighter project, later renamed Yin Yang, in the late 1970s. After the US established formal relations with China and ended the Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan, President Chiang Ching-Kuo decided to expand the indigenous defense industry and on August 28, 1980, ordered AIDC to design an indigenous interceptor. Originally, the ROCAF listed the priority of the XF-6 behind the XA-3 Lei Ming single seat attack aircraft, due to the believed high risks of the XF-6 project.
The signing of the 1982 US-China Joint Communiqué limited arms sales to Taiwan. The United States refused to sell the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and the Northrop F-20 Tigershark (which had been developed largely to meet Taiwanese national defense needs for an advanced jet fighter to replace their older F-5 jet fighters) thereby ensuring the continuation of the indigenous fighter project. Although US President Ronald Reagan reluctantly accepted his advisers' suggestion of building relations with China to counter the USSR, Reagan decided to balance the 1982 US-PRC Communiqué with the "Six Assurances" to Taiwan. This opened the door for US technology transfer and assistance to Taiwan's defense industry, including the IDF project.

Design phase

The AIDC officially began the IDF development project in May 1982 following the ROCAF's failure to purchase new fighters from the United States as a result of Chinese diplomatic pressure. The project was named An Hsiang (安翔):Safe Flight) and divided into four sections in 1983:
  • Yin-Yang (鷹揚): "Soaring Eagle". Development of the airframe. Some cooperation with General Dynamics.
  • Yun-Han (雲漢): "Cloud Man". Development of the aircraft powerplant and propulsion. Cooperation with Garrett (Now Honeywell).
  • Tien-Lei (天雷): "Sky Thunder". Development of the avionics systems. Some cooperation with Smiths Industries, with some components purchased directly from Lear Astronics (today a subsidiary of BAE), Litton (today a subsidiary of Northrop Grumman) and Martin-Baker.
  • Tien-Chien (天劍): "Sky Sword". Development of air-to-air missiles.

In April 1997 American company Litton's Applied Technology division was awarded a production contract and options totaling $116.2 million by the Aerospace Industrial Development Corporation for Improved Radar Warning Receivers (IRWR) to be installed aboard.

Yun Han: engine research

Exports of advanced engines such as the General Electric F404 or the Pratt & Whitney F100 were not available to Taiwan and both the General Electric J85 and General Electric J79 were considered unsuitable in their performance, and most European and American engine companies declined to cooperate with the project. Joint investment with Garrett became the only practical solution.
In 1978, following the success of the TFE731 engine, U.S. engine company Garrett announced joint research of the TFE1042 afterburner with the Swedish company Volvo Flygmotor. The TFE731 Model 1042 was touted as a low bypass ratio "military derivative of the proven commercial TFE731 engine" and that it would provide "efficient, reliable, cost effective propulsion for the next generation of light strike and advanced trainer aircraft", with a thrust of 4260 lbf (18.9 kN) dry and 6790 lbf (30.2 kN) with afterburner. After the initial negotiation, the investment was going to be divided between Garrett, Volvo, AIDC, and the Italian company Piaggio. The development would consist of the non-afterburning TFE1042-6 for light attack aircraft and advanced trainers, and the TFE1042-7 for the AMX or the F-5 upgrade. AIDC also suggested upgrading the TFE1042-7 to 8,000 lbf (36 kN) thrust in a twin-engine installation, in order to compete with the GE F404. However, the JAS 39 Gripen project decided to continue with a single F404, and Piaggio asked to participate at a later date due to financial concerns.
ITEC completely redesigned the TFE1042-7 into the TFE1042-70 – for example, the bypass ratio was changed from 0.84 to 0.4, and the investment had increased from US$180 million to about US$320 million. However, to avoid pressures from China, the US government had asked all American companies cooperating with the Taiwan on the IDF project to remain low-key. Therefore, the perception that "the TFE1042 is merely the civilian engine TFE731 with an afterburner" was never completely dispelled.
In 1985, the preliminary review of the IDF's design revealed some performance requirement shortfalls, and it was determined that an upgrade of engine thrust by 10% was the simplest solution. Due to American export license restrictions, ITEC used FADEC to artificially limit the thrust below a certain altitude (the restriction was not removed until 1990). Although the upgrade essentially used the TFE1088-11 configuration, to reduce political interference ITEC renamed the original, lower-thrust version as the TFE1042-X70 and retained the TFE1042-70 designation for the upgraded version.
In 1988, ITEC decided to invest in the 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust TFE1088-12, which was re-designated as the TFE1042-70A for political reason as well. Preliminary studies had shown that the IDF could supercruise with the new engine. At the same time, General Electric Aviation decided to enter the market with the J101/SF, a smaller version of the F404. However, after the IDF order was cut in half due to budget concerns, the TFE1088-12 engine upgrade plan ended as well.

Yin Yang: aerodynamic design

The cooperation between AIDC and General Dynamics (GD) was divided into four phases:
GD analyzed the ROCAF's aircraft performance and force requirements.
Taiwan assessed GD's reports and chose between AIDC's original design and GD's new design.
AIDC sent personnel to GD for the preliminary design phase.
GD sent personnel to Taiwan to complete the project.
GD's assistance was restricted by the US State Department's arms export control, which limited GD's work to initial design consulting but not further development, production, or marketing.
Many different airframe design concepts were explored (e.g. the 2D Thrust-Vectoring nozzle of XX-201, the double delta wings/twin tailed 401). After the General Electric J79 was officially abandoned as the potential engine solution in 1983, three configurations emerged from AIDC.
Configuration A was similar to the F-5E.
Configuration B was similar to the Eurofighter Typhoon and Saab Gripen.
Configuration C was similar to the F-15.
At the same time, GD worked on the G configuration in parallel. Eventually the G-4 was selected, but with many features of the C-2 integrated. During this time, the project was named the "Light Weight Defense Fighter". In 1985, the configuration conceptual design had evolved into the SE-1 preliminary design. By the end of 1985, AIDC decided to skip the prototype stage and go into Full Scale Development (FSD) directly, in order to reduce time and save money. The project was again renamed into the "Indigenous Defense Fighter". Four FSD aircraft were made, with three single-seaters and one double-seater.

Tien Lei: Avionics Integration

The IDF is equipped with a GD-53 Golden Dragon multi-mode monopulse pulse-Doppler radar, which is based on the General Electric AN/APG-67 X band radar developed for the F-20 while sharing some components and technologies of the AN/APG-66 radar of the F-16A, and using a larger antenna than used by the F-20. and this adaptation resulted in the look-down and shoot-down capability of GD-53 being greatly enhanced in comparison to that of the original AN/APG-67, reaching that of the AN/APG-66. The radar can simultaneously track 10 targets and engage two of the 10 targets tracked with TC-2 active radar seeker BVRAAMs.
The design is inherently unstable in pitch, so the IDF incorporated a modern triple-redundant full authority fly-by-wire control system. The avionics suite was based on modular architecture with dual redundant MIL-STD-1553B digital databuses. The Honeywell H423 inertial navigation system, the TWS-95 RHAWS, and the Bendix-King head-up display were selected. Some capabilities may have been delayed or dropped in order to meet the performance requirement, since the engine limitation has resulted in the necessity of strict weight control.

Tien Chien: Missile R&D

The CSIST's Tien Chien (Sky Sword) project was slightly more independent, since it was considered to be a development for all the ROCAF's aircraft rather than only the IDF. The Tien Chien 1 (TC-1) is a short range infrared-seeking missile with an external configuration similar to that of the AIM-9 Sidewinder, while the Tien Chien 2 (TC-2) is an active radar homing Beyond Visual Range missile.
The first test firing of the TC-1 missile was performed by an F-5E in April 1986, with the Beech target drone successfully destroyed. Initial production of the TC-1 began in 1989, and it entered service in 1991. Both the AIM-9 and the TC-1 have been seen in use on operational IDFs.
CSIST is believed to have cooperated with Motorola and Raytheon on the TC-2's active seeker, which is believed to be based on their seeker design which was proposed for the AIM-120. 40 pre-production TC-2 missiles were produced before 1995, and were the only BVR AAMs that the ROCAF had in its inventory during the 1995–96 Taiwan Strait Missile Crisis. Over 200 production TC-2s were originally planned.

Upgrades

During the F-CK-1’s development it was tapped as the secondary delivery vehicle for the Taiwanese nuclear weapons then in development. The primary delivery method was to be the Sky Horse missile. Weapons designers at CSIST were instructed to design the nuclear weapon to fit within the dimensions of the F-CK-1’s centerline drop tank (~50cm diameter). Modifications to the aircraft would have been required for it to obtain the desired 1,000km range (especially without the centerline drop tank available) and were envisioned to include more efficient non-afterburning engines. The F-CK-1 would not have been able to fulfill the nuclear strike mission until mid-1989 at the very earliest. Early designs called for an unpowered gravity bomb. The nuclear weapons program was shut down under US pressure before the F-CK-1 entered service and the dedicated nuclear strike variant was never produced.
The first stage of upgrades to the fleet was originally planned to be completed by 2013, and was planned to include improved avionics, radar, electronics, weapons capabilities and lifespan extensions. In May 2014, the ROC Air Force made photos of the fighters with enhanced Wan Chien long-range missile capabilities public. The upgrade program was finally completed in 2018.

Variants

F-CK-1 A/B Ching-Kuo

The first successful test flight by FSD A1 was made on May 28, 1989. The first two-seater (and the fourth prototype), FSD B1, conducted its first flight on July 10, 1990. The first successful firing of the Tien-Chien II (Sky Sword II) air-to-air missile took place in 1992, with the ROCAF establishing its first F-CK-1 squadron the following year with a batch of 10 pre-production aircraft.
The ROCAF's initial order for 256 aircraft was cut to 130 in 1991, following deals for the purchase of 150 F-16 Block 20 A/B and 60 Mirage 2000-5Ei/Di with the US and France. The last IDF A/B rolled off the production line in 1999. Mid-life updates to the aircraft were initiated in 2011.

F-CK-1 C/D Hsiang Sheng

The Ministry of National Defense (MND) announced that beginning in 2001, the government would include a new budget allocation for the IDF upgrade plan (as included in the five MND proposals to help AIDC). The five proposals were:
Upgrades of the AT-3, IDF, and F-5 would be assigned to AIDC in the future.
The Army Utility Helicopter, the Navy's long range ASW aircraft, a helicopter for the Marines, and an Air Force medium transport will all be produced and assembled by qualifying domestic firms in conjunction with the foreign firms that originally designed them.
NCSIST and AIDC will jointly assemble a team for the early planning of the ROCAF's next generation fighter, in order to assess procurement methods and suggest concepts.
AIDC's joint ventures with foreign firms or alliances with domestic firms will be given high priority in military aircraft service and maintenance.
In the future, the military will give responsibility for weapons system flight tests, electronic warfare exercises, air towing drones, avionics maintenance, and weapons procurement planning to AIDC, in situations where AIDC has the professional capacity that the military lack. This is part of the seven-year IDF C/D R&D plan (FY2001~FY2007), which allocates 10 million New Taiwanese Dollars (NTD) annually for a total of 70 million NTD for both CSIST and AIDC. Initial media reports indicated that the upgraded IDF would be called the "Joint Countermeasure Platform".

In 2001, it was reported that development of a new "stealth" variant with more powerful engines and improved fire-control system would commence that year. In a 2006 interview with Jane's Defence Weekly, former AIDC Chairman Sun Tao-Yu said that two new prototypes had been manufactured. The upgrade would allow the IDF to carry an additional 771 kg of fuel. In addition, it includes an improved avionics suite, retrofitted electronic warfare capabilities, and new weapons systems. The landing gear has been strengthened to accommodate the additional payload and fuel, but the plan for a dielectric radar-absorbing "stealth" fuselage was dropped due to concerns over weight. The project consists of three phases:
Increase the carrying capacity for the TC-2 beyond-visual range air-to-air missile from two to four. Integrate the TC-2A anti-radiation missile and the Wan Chien cluster bomb. In addition, two conformal fuel tanks were seen on the two newly built prototype aircraft, these are not seen on production upgrades.
Upgrade the mission computers, the electronic counter-countermeasures, the electronic warfare systems, the Active Identification Friend or Foe (AIFF) system and the terrain-following radar.

Ground and air testing.

The development contract for the upgraded 32-bit IDF C/D flight control computer was awarded in 2002 to BAE Systems. AIDC said that the improvements of the flight computer will result in "a safer, higher-performing aircraft.” Other improvements made include enhanced electronic warfare capabilities, a strengthened landing gear and a digital anti-skid system. The upgrade also included new indigenous flight control software ending the reliance on US controlled source code.
The first test flight of the upgraded IDF was reportedly successfully completed a few days ahead of schedule in early October.
On March 27, 2007, President Chen Shui-Bian witnessed a test flight of F-CK-1D, and announced that the upgraded IDF will be named Hsiung Ying (Brave Hawk), which signifies that the new fighter would protect the homeland just like the Crested Goshawk.
As of 12/2009, 71 F-CK-1 A/B are upgrading to F-CK-1 C/D over 4 years span for over US$500 million, according to AIDC CEO, under Project Hsiang Chan (翔展), as AIDC and ROCAF had signed a contract for the expected upgrade program.
In 2018 AIDC delivered the last upgraded F-CK-1 C/D to the Republic of China Air Force.

IDF Lead-in Fighter Trainer

According to the media, the AIDC IDF trainer concept apparently involved the removal of the fire control radar and combat systems with the retention of rear-seat flight controls, so that the IDF could be used as a lead-in fighter trainer (LIFT). The ROCAF seemed to have reservations with the concept, however, as it would mean the IDF LIFT would not be usable in wartime. A MND letter said, "Regarding the newspaper report of AIDC's desire to use the IDF fighter as a basis for supersonic trainer development, it is only that company's operational planning concept. The Ministry of National Defense and the Air Force currently do not have such a plan". The letter then said that due to a tight budget allocation the ROCAF would instead ask AIDC to extend the life of the AT-3 and continue to use the F-5 in the LIFT role.
In 2003, the former AIDC Chairman Huang Jung-Te said that AIDC still hoped the ROCAF would consider using a simplified version of the IDF for LIFT, and that such a concept could have a cost as low as US$16 million per unit, compared to the T-50's 19 million. However, the F-CK-1 LIFT modifications or new production concepts never received government funding or approval.
In May 2006, Lt. General Cheng Shih-Yu testified that the MND indeed plans to retire the F-5E/F by 2010 and allow the in-service IDFs to take over training missions. It is unclear what modifications (if any) will be made to IDFs after they become trainers.

Operators:
  • Taiwan - Republic of China (Taiwan) Air Force – 131 aircraft, including 6 pre-production aircraft.

Specifications (F-CK-1A)

General characteristics
  • Crew: 1
  • Length: 14.48 m (47 ft 6 in)
  • Wingspan: 9 m (29 ft 6 in)
  • Height: 4.42 m (14 ft 6 in)
  • Wing area: 24.2 m2 (260 sq ft)
  • Empty weight: 6,500 kg (14,330 lb)
  • Gross weight: 9,072 kg (20,000 lb)
  • Max takeoff weight: 9,526 kg (21,001 lb)
  • Powerplant: 2 × Honeywell/ITEC F125-GA-100 turbofan, 27 kN (6,100 lbf) thrust each dry, 42.1 kN (9,500 lbf) with afterburner

Performance
  • Maximum speed: Mach 1.8 (1379mph, 2220 km/h)
  • Range: 1,100 km (680 mi, 590 nmi)
  • Service ceiling: 16,800 m (55,100 ft)
  • Thrust/weight: 1.01

Armament

  • Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A1 6-barreled Gatling cannon
  • Missiles:
  • 4× Sky Sword I
  • 4× Sky Sword II
  • 4× AIM-9 Sidewinder
  • 4× AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missiles
  • 2× Hsiung Feng II Anti-ship missiles
Bombs:
  • 2x Wan Chien air-to-ground cruise missile
  • 10x Mark 82 bomb
  • 10x Mk-20 Rockeye II
  • 3x Mark 84 bomb

Avionics

  • Radar: 1× GD-53 X-band pulse doppler
  • Effective scanning range:
  • Look up: 57 kilometres (35 mi)
  • Look down: 39 km (24 mi).

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