Il T-45 Goshawk dell'US NAVY

Il T-45 Goshawk è una versione altamente modificata dell'addestratore britannico BAe Hawk. Costruito dalla McDonnell Douglas (ora Boeing) e dalla British Aerospace (ora BAE Systems), il T-45 è usato dalla United States Navy come addestratore imbarcato.

Trae le sue origini verso la metà degli anni '70, durante i quali l’US NAVY iniziò formalmente la ricerca di un nuovo velivolo da addestramento jet che fungesse da unico sostituto per i suoi addestratori T-2 Buckeye e A-4 Skyhawk.  Nel 1978, il programma di addestramento avanzato VTXTS per soddisfare questa esigenza fu ufficialmente lanciato dalla Marina degli Stati Uniti. Un team anglo - americano, composto dal produttore aeronautico britannico British Aerospace (BAe) e dalla compagnia aeronautica americana McDonnell Douglas (MDC), decise di presentare la sua proposta per una versione navale del trainer terrestre BAE Systems Hawk . Altri produttori presentarono offerte, come la società francese Dassault Aviation, il produttore tedesco Dornier con la società aerospaziale americana Lockheed, che offrirono il loro Alpha Jet per soddisfare il requisito.

La competizione VTX-TS non era semplicemente per l'approvvigionamento di un singolo aereo: comprendeva cinque aree principali: il velivolo stesso, simulatori di volo capaci, ausili di addestramento accademico maturati, supporto logistico integrato e gestione del programma.  Per la loro proposta, MDC fu il principale appaltatore e integratore di sistemi, BAe aveva il compito principale di subappaltatore e partner per l'elemento aeromobile, Rolls-Royce ha fornito il motore Adour per spingere l'aeromobile e la Sperry fu il principale subappaltatore per il simulatore sistema.  Nel novembre 1981, la Marina degli Stati Uniti annunciò di aver selezionato l’Hawk come vincitore della competizione VTX-TS.  Secondo quanto riferito, circa il 60% del lavoro sul programma T-45 fu svolto all'estero in Gran Bretagna. Nel settembre 1982, un contratto di sviluppo ingegneristico su vasta scala fu assegnato alla squadra per sviluppare e produrre completamente il velivolo proposto, che fu designato come T-45.  Il 16 aprile 1988, il primo T-45A fece il suo volo inaugurale. 

PRODUZIONE

Il lavoro sulla produzione dell'aereo venne diviso tra le due principali società partner. BAE Systems (successore di BAe in seguito alla fusione con Marconi Electronic Systems nel 1999) era responsabile della produzione della fusoliera posteriore della cabina di pilotaggio, insieme alle prese d'aria e allo stabilizzatore verticale del T-45 presso la loro struttura di Samlesbury, mentre le ali erano prodotto nello stabilimento dell'azienda a Brough, in Inghilterra. La Boeing (che si era fusa con la McDonnell Douglas nel 1997) fornì gli elementi rimanenti del T45, oltre a condurre l'assemblaggio in una linea di produzione a St. Louis, Missouri, dopo aver trasferito i lavori sul programma dal struttura aziendale a Long Beach, California.

L'aereo ha mantenuto il tipico propulsore utilizzato dall'Hawk, il motore turbofan Rolls-Royce Adour .  Durante la metà degli anni '90, Rolls-Royce ha lavorato alla creazione di una linea di produzione con sede negli Stati Uniti per il motore Adour, che doveva essere gestita dall'ex Allison Engine Company (che era stata recentemente acquisita da Rolls-Royce nel 1995); tuttavia, nel settembre 1997, la US Navy scelse di porre fine allo sforzo del motore parzialmente finito. Intorno a questo periodo, la Marina degli Stati Uniti era molto interessata ad adottare potenzialmente un altro propulsore, il motore turbofan F124 della International Turbine Engine Company. Il 7 ottobre 1996, un aereo di prova T-45A volò, alimentato dal motore rivale F124.

I velivoli di prima produzione furono designati T-45A. Dal dicembre 1997 in poi, i Goshawk di produzione successiva furono costruiti con sistemi avionici avanzati, che includevano l'adozione di un cockpit in vetro e di un display head-up (HUD); come tali, furono designati T-45C.  Dal 2003 in poi, tutti gli aerei da addestramento T-45A esistenti sono stati convertiti nella più moderna configurazione T-45C nell'ambito del programma di modernizzazione avionica richiesto per il T-45. Questo programma portò gli addestratori della US Navy a un identico standard denominato Cockpit 21, che incorporava sia l'HUD che l'abitacolo con display a colori, con il vantaggio di rendere gli addestratori più simili all'aereo da combattimento di prima linea della US Navy. Il 16 marzo 2007, fu annunciato che il 200° Astore era stato consegnato alla Marina degli Stati Uniti.  Nel novembre 2009 è stato consegnato il 221° velivolo, l'ultimo velivolo prodotto.

ULTERIORE SVILUPPO 

All'inizio del 2008, l’Us Navy ha annunciato che molti dei suoi T-45C sarebbero stati dotati di una capacità radar ad apertura sintetica per consentire loro di supportare i requisiti di addestramento dell'equipaggio posteriore e che stava considerando un possibile requisito per ordinarealtri ulteriori modelli così equipaggiati. Un lotto iniziale di 19 T-45C vennero equipaggiati con questo sistema di addestramento alla missione virtuale (VMTS), che simula le capacità del radar Raytheon APG-73 della Boeing F / A-18E / F della Marina USA (comprese le modalità di mappatura terrestre, aria-terra e aria-aria, insieme a una capacità di addestramento alla guerra elettronica); tali aerei furono consegnati alla scuola di addestramento per ufficiali di volo militari della Marina di Pensacola, in Florida. Il T45C viene utilizzato anche per addestrarsi al sistema di armi degli operatori di guerra elettronica del Super Hornet e del Boeing EA-18G Growler.

Sia McDonnell Douglas che Boeing hanno adottato approcci multipli ai potenziali clienti esteri, offrendo in genere il T45 nel ruolo di trainer. Durante la metà degli anni '90, McDonnell Douglas si unì alla Rockwell International per offrire congiuntamente il T-45 in sostituzione della flotta di addestratori di jet della Royal Australian Air Force in competizione contro, tra gli altri, l’Hawk da cui il T45 era derivato. Gli sforzi di marketing per acquisire clienti export furono intensificati a seguito di un taglio del tasso di approvvigionamento da parte della Marina statunitense nel 2003; secondo Lon Nordeen, direttore dello sviluppo aziendale T-45, Israele era stato identificato come un potenziale acquirente. Alla fine del 2006, la società spinse il concetto di una variante avanzata dell'astore T-45C in Grecia, sottolineandone la stretta compatibilità con il Beechcraft T-6A Texan II già operato dal paese. All'inizio del 2007, il vicepresidente della Boeing Mark Kronenberg dichiarò che la compagnia aveva discusso con la Marina indiana, che aveva un requisito previsto per gli aerei da addestramento navale.

A partire dal 2003, il comando AETC (Air Education and Training Command) dell'Aeronautica degli Stati Uniti (USAF) ha lavorato sui requisiti per la sostituzione del jet trainer Northrop T-38 Talon degli anni '60. Entro il 2010, secondo quanto riferito, la Marina degli Stati Uniti era coinvolta nelle valutazioni per l'iniziativa, nota come programma TX, e aveva preso in considerazione i meriti dell'adozione della stessa cellula per soddisfare i suoi requisiti a lungo termine per sostituire eventualmente anche il T45.  Secondo quanto riferito, BAE Systems, in collaborazione con la società Northrop Grumman, ha ripetutamente tenuto discussioni con l'USAF sullo sviluppo di un nuovo potenziale derivato dell’Hawk conforme alle loro esigenze specifiche di trainer, simile al Goshawk per la marina statunitense.

Versioni:

• T-45A - Versione biposto da addestramento basico ed avanzato per la US Navy.
• T-45B - Versione non imbarcata proposta alla US Navy molto simile allo standard del BAe Hawk. La Navy ha abbandonato l'idea d'acquisto nel 1984 a favore degli aggiornamenti meno costosi del TA-4 e del T-2.
• T-45C - Versione aggiornata del T-45A con avionica e cockpit rinnovati. Tutti i T-45A sono stati successivamente aggiornati a questo standard.

Utilizzatori:

• Stati Uniti - United States Navy - 193 in servizio al maggio 2019, in quanto un esemplare è andato perso (dopo i due persi a gennaio ed ottobre 2017) nello stesso mese.

ENGLISH

The McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) T-45 Goshawk is a highly modified version of the British BAE Systems Hawk land-based training jet aircraft. Manufactured by McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) and British Aerospace (now BAE Systems), the T-45 is used by the United States Navy as an aircraft carrier-capable trainer.

Development

Background

The T-45 Goshawk has its origins within the mid-1970s, during which time the U.S. Navy formally commenced its search for a new jet trainer aircraft to serve as a single replacement for both its T-2 Buckeye and A-4 Skyhawk trainers. During 1978, the VTXTS advanced trainer program to meet this need was formally launched by the U.S. Navy. An Anglo-American team, comprising British aviation manufacturer British Aerospace(BAe) and American aircraft company McDonnell Douglas (MDC), decided to submit their proposal for a navalised version of the land-based BAE Systems Hawk trainer. Other manufacturers also submitted bids, such as a rival team of French aircraft company Dassault Aviation, German manufacturer Dornier and American aerospace company Lockheed, who offered their Alpha Jet to fulfil the requirement.

The VTX-TS competition was not simply for the procurement of an aircraft in isolation; it comprised five core areas: the aircraft itself, capable flight simulators, matured academic training aids, integrated logistic support, and program management. For their proposal, MDC was the prime contractor and systems integrator, BAe functioned as the principal subcontractor and partner for the aircraft element, Rolls-Royce provided the Adour engine to power the aircraft, and Sperry is the principal subcontractor for the simulator system. During November 1981, the U.S. Navy announced that it had selected the Hawk as the winner of the VTX-TS competition. Reportedly, approximately 60 per cent of the work on the T-45 program was undertaken overseas in Britain. During September 1982, a Full Scale Engineering Development contract was awarded to the team to fully develop and produce the proposed aircraft, which had been designated as the T-45 Goshawk. On 16 April 1988, the first T-45A Goshawk conducted its maiden flight.

Production

Work on the production of the Goshawk was divided between the two primary partner companies. BAE Systems (BAe's successor following its merger with Marconi Electronic Systems during 1999) was responsible for manufacturing the fuselage aft of the cockpit, along with the air inlets, and the vertical stabilizer of the T-45 at their Samlesbury facility, while the wings were produced at the company's plant at Brough, England. Boeing (which had merged with McDonnell Douglas during 1997) performed the manufacture of the remaining elements of the Goshawk, as well as conducting assembly of the type at a production line at St. Louis, Missouri, after having transferred work on the program from the company's facility in Long Beach, California.

The Goshawk retained the typical powerplant used by the Hawk, the Rolls-Royce Adour turbofan jet engine. During the mid-1990s, Rolls-Royce worked on establishing a US-based production line for the Adour engine, which was to be operated by the former Allison Engine Company (which had been recently acquired by Rolls-Royce in 1995); however, during September 1997, the U.S. Navy chose to terminate the partially-finished engine effort. Around this time, the U.S. Navy was greatly interested in potentially adopting another powerplant, the International Turbine Engine Company's F124 turbofan engine, for the Goshawk. On 7 October 1996, a T-45A test aircraft flew, powered by the rival F124 engine.

Early production aircraft were designated T-45A. From December 1997 onwards, later-built production Goshawks were constructed with enhanced avionics systems, which included the adoption of a glass cockpit and head-up display (HUD); as such, they were designated T-45C. From 2003 onwards, all of the extant T-45A trainer aircraft were eventually converted to the more modern T-45C configuration under the T-45 Required Avionics Modernization Program. This program brought the U.S. Navy's trainers to an identical Cockpit 21 standard, which incorporated both the HUD and the glass cockpit, which had the benefit of making the trainers more similar to the U.S. Navy's frontline fighter aircraft. On 16 March 2007, it was announced that the 200th Goshawk had been delivered to the U.S. Navy. During November 2009, the 221st aircraft, the final aircraft to be produced, was delivered.

Further development

During early 2008, it was announced by the US Navy that several of its T-45C Goshawks would be outfitted with a synthetic radar capability to allow them to support rear crew training requirements, and that it was considering a possible requirement for a follow-on order for such equipped models of the type. An initial batch of 19 T-45Cs equipped with this virtual mission training system (VMTS), which simulates the capabilities of the US Navy's Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet's Raytheon APG-73 radar (including ground mapping, air-to-ground and air-to-air targeting modes, along with an electronic warfare training capability) were delivered to the Navy's Undergraduate Military Flight Officer training school at Pensacola, Florida. The type was used to prepare weapon system and electronic warfare operators for the Super Hornet and the Boeing EA-18G Growler.

Both McDonnell Douglas and Boeing have made multiple approaches to potential overseas customers, typically offering the Goshawk in the trainer role. During the mid-1990s, McDonnell Douglas teamed up with Rockwell International to jointly bid the T-45 as a replacement the Royal Australian Air Force's jet trainer fleet in competition against, amongst others, the Hawk that the type had been derived from. Marketing efforts to acquire export customers were intensified following a cut in the procurement rate by the U.S. Navy during 2003; according to Lon Nordeen, T-45 business development manager, Israel had been identified as having a potential requirement for the type. During late 2006, the company promoted the concept of an advanced variant of the T-45C Goshawk to Greece, emphasising its close compatibility with the Beechcraft T-6A Texan II trainer already operated by the country. During early 2007, Boeing VP Mark Kronenberg stated that the company had held discussions with the Indian Navy, which had an anticipated requirement for naval training aircraft.

Starting in 2003, the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) of the United States Air Force (USAF) worked on the requirements for replacing the 1960s-era Northrop T-38 Talon jet trainer. By 2010, the US Navy was reportedly involved in the evaluations for the initiative, known as the T-X program and had been considering the merits of adopting the same airframe to meet its long-term requirements to eventually replace the Goshawk as well. Reportedly, BAE Systems, later in partnership with American defense company Northrop Grumman, has repeatedly held discussions with the USAF on the development of a new potential derivative of the Hawk conforming to their specific trainer needs, similar in fashion to the Goshawk for the US Navy.

Design

The T-45 Goshawk is a fully carrier-capable version of the British Aerospace Hawk Mk.60. It was developed as a jet flight trainer for the United States Navy (USN) and United States Marine Corps (USMC). The Hawk had not originally been designed to perform carrier operations; accordingly, numerous modifications were required to produce a suitable aircraft for such use, such as the extensive strengthening of the airframe, which had been necessitated in order to withstand the excessive forces imposed by the stresses involved in catapult launches and high sink-rate landings, both scenarios being routine in aircraft carrier operations.

Most notable amongst the changes made to the Hawk's design was the adoption of a comparatively simple leading-edge slat system, operated by an actuator and linkage mechanism capable of being housed within the limited free space available, along with the addition of strakes on the fuselage which improved airflow. Other modifications to the Goshawk included its reinforced airframe, the adoption of a more robust and widened landing gear, complete with a catapult tow bar attachment to the oleo strut of the new two-wheel nosegear design, and an arresting hook. Additionally, the wingtips were squared off, a 6-inch (0.152 m) extension to the tail fin and an increased span tailplane (which was also furnished with squared-off tips) were installed, along with a single ventral fin in front of the arrestor hook.

At the time of the Goshawk's selection, the World War II-era USS Lexington was the U.S. Navy's training carrier. Lexington, which featured a 910 ft-long and 192 ft-wide angled flight deck, complete with a pair of relatively short-stroke steam catapults and similarly short, undampened arrester gear, was a major driving factor for the design of the T-45 in order to suit such operations. The aerodynamic changes of the aircraft, which were developed by BAe at their existing facilities in the United Kingdom, included improvements to the low-speed handling characteristics and a reduction in the approach speed. During flight testing of the Goshawk, it was revealed that the aircraft had retained relatively favourable flight characteristics, even when flown within stall conditions at the required low approach speed.

Operational history

The T-45 has been used for intermediate and advanced portions of the Navy/Marine Corps Student Naval Aviator strike pilot training program with Training Air Wing One at Naval Air Station Meridian, Mississippi, and Training Air Wing Two at Naval Air Station Kingsville, Texas. The T-45 replaced the T-2C Buckeye intermediate jet trainer and the TA-4J Skyhawk II advanced jet trainer with an integrated training system that includes the T-45 Goshawk aircraft, operational and instrument flight simulators, academics, and training integration system support. In 2008, the T-45C also began operation in the advanced portion of Navy/Marine Corps Student Naval Flight Officer training track for strike aircraft with Training Air Wing Six at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. A small number of the aircraft is also operated by the Naval Air Systems Command at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland.

The original T-45A, which became operational in 1991, contained an analog cockpit design, while the newer T-45C, which was first delivered in December 1997, features a new digital "glass cockpit" design. All T-45A aircraft currently in operational use are upgraded to T-45C standard. The T-45 is to remain in service until 2035 or later.

In 2017, the USN grounded the T-45 fleet for a three-day "safety pause" after more than 100 instructor pilots refused to fly the aircraft. The pilots cited concerns about incidents of hypoxia that they believed to have resulted from faulty onboard oxygen-generation systems. Over the past five years physiological episodes linked to problems with the T-45's oxygen system have nearly quadrupled, according to testimony from senior naval aviators in April 2017. The grounding order was first extended and then lifted, but only for instructors and with a flight ceiling restriction of 10,000 feet where the Onboard Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS) would not be needed. The grounding order was fully lifted, along with all restrictions on flight ceiling and student pilots in August, 2017. The T-45 fleet was thereafter upgraded with new sensors to monitor the onboard oxygen systems, as well as a new water separation system, in hopes of reducing hypoxia events and determining the root cause of the problems. Though the underlying causes have yet to be definitively determined, by the first quarter of 2018, hypoxia events had returned to nominal levels after peaking in 2016 and 2017. Work continues on ensuring further physiological events are kept to a minimum - backup oxygen systems are being developed and are planned to be installed by the second half of 2019. In recent years, similar issues have also affected the Navy's F/A-18s and the Air Force's T-6s, F-22s, and F-35s, some within the same or similar time frames, and the Department of Defense has established a joint command to investigate the problems.

Variants:

• T-45A - Two-seat basic and advanced jet trainer for the US Navy and US Marine Corps
• T-45B - Proposed land-based version which would have been basically a conventional Hawk furnished with a US Navy-spec cockpit and no carrier capability. The US Navy had wanted to procure the T-45B so that trainee pilots could benefit from an earlier training capability, but abandoned the idea during 1984 in favor of less-costly updates to the TA-4J and T-2C.
• T-45C - Improved T-45A, outfitted with a glass cockpit, inertial navigation, and other improvements. All existing T-45As have been upgraded to the T-45C standard.
• T-45D - Tentative designation for an envisioned upgrade of the T-45, potentially incorporating various manufacturing improvements and additional equipment, such as helmet-mounted displays.

Operators:

• United States - United States Navy: T-45C

Specifications (T-45A):

• General characteristics
• Crew: 2 (student, instructor)
• Length: 39 ft 4 in (11.99 m)
• Wingspan: 30 ft 10 in (9.39 m)
• Height: 13 ft 5 in (4.08 m)
• Wing area: 190.1 ft2 (17.7 m2)
• Empty weight: 10,403 lb (4,460 kg)
• Max. takeoff weight: 14,081 lb (6,387 kg)
• Powerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Turbomeca F405-RR-401 (Adour) turbofan, 5,527 lbf (26 kN)

Performance

• Maximum speed: 560 knots, (645 mph, 1,038 km/h) at 8,000 ft
• Range: 700 nmi (805 mi, 1288 km)
• Service ceiling: 42,500 ft (12,950 m)
• Rate of climb: 8,000 ft/min (40.6 m/s)

Armament


• Usually none: One hardpoint under each wing can be used to carry practice bomb racks (can carry up to 12 Mk-76 practice bombs), rocket pods, or fuel tanks. A centerline hardpoint can carry a cargo pod for crew baggage.

Avionics


• Smiths Industries, Ltd. AN/USN-2(V) Standard Attitude Heading and Reference System, later replaced by the BAE/Marconi AN/ASN-180 Navigation Guidance System
• Rockwell Collins AN/ARN-144 VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range / Instrument Landing System
• Honeywell AN/APN-194 Radar altimeter
• Northrop Grumman AN/ASN-166 Inertial Guidance Set [2] Incorporates a Northrop Grumman (formerly Litton) LN-100G ring laser gyroscope, a Rockwell Collins Global Positioning System, and a Kalman filter

Communications suite

• Rockwell Collins AN/ARC-182 UHF/VHF radio
• Honeywell AN/APX-100 identification friend or foe system.

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